INDIAN JOURNAL OF GERONTOLOGY, VOL.20, No.4, 2006, p:405-416.

INTRODUCTION

Electronic technology is changing our life-style to a great extent. Prevalence and excessive use of electronic products found among people, cutting across cultural differences, have set in a trend for e-culture. Electronic-culture is new. It is emerging as a transnational and global phenomenon; not confined to geographical boundaries. Internet, especially, is expected to bring in sweeping and lasting cultural transformations. For instance, terms like e-commerce, e-business, e-banking, e-mails, e-organizations, e-governance, e-journals, e-books, e-medicine, internet, web-shopping, etc have become part of the current lexicon.

The advances and breakthroughs made in the fields of information and communication technology (ICT) and electronics during the present and previous centuries have resulted in the emergence of e-culture. Though the ICT revolution started in the near past its progress towards networking is achieved only recently through the impetus provided by the Internet (Uzelac, 2003). According to Mercer (2003) it is the ICT-availability and access to Internet that provides scope for production of e-culture. However, today the emergence of e-culture is taken for granted due to prevalence of the interactive digital applications of the ICT such as Internet and mobile technologies (Mitchell, 2003).

Van Dijk (2001) identified four different types of access to ICT as conditions for the emergence of e-culture, namely, motivation, possession, use and skills. Motivation concerns psychical access to ICT: the interest in it, the will to use it and the lack of fear of new technology. Possession means, in this context, the availability of equipment and an Internet connection at home or at work, school or university. The third component of access is the actual use that people make of available possibilities. The use depends in part on the fourth form of access, namely the possession of digital skills (De Haan & Huysmans, 2002).

E-culture though prevalent widely, is a recent phenomenon. The scientist community has not explored much of it now. De Haan and Huysmans (2002) cautions that the exploration of e-culture may only be the start of a long-term process of change taking place at a global level. Research on e-culture presently is at a rudimentary level and so is its concept. Scholars in this field have tried to define e-culture in various ways, but all being far from conclusive.

E-culture is increasingly perceived as a new digital media culture or digitalization of culture. Netherlands council for culture (2004) argues that, within the context of the ‘digitizing society,’ e-culture should be seen as the integration of ICT into the primary processes of productivity, distribution, presentation, preservation and (re)utilization of cultural expression. According to the view of De Haan and Huysmans (2002) the term ‘e-culture’ is stated to refer to the diffusion of new technology, its application for various avenues such as information and communication in addition to shifts effected in related attitudes, values and norms. Patel and Rajendran (2005) have defined “electronic culture” as “increased use of electronic goods by individuals in various areas like home, office, public places and those they carry personally with them, to fulfill their psycho-social needs.”

E-culture is both technological and a social development. There is a widespread consensus that new digital and networking technologies like the World Wide Web (WWW) and the Internet have the capacity to reorder the domains of everyday social and personal life (Dona Kolar-Panov, 2003). Cultural habits and participation in cultural life are changing as a corollary of e-culture. Hence, it would be pertinent here to consider briefly the concept and importance of culture in the light of a psychological focus leading to the study on the impact of e-culture.

According to Brislin (2000) one of the major assumptions of cross-cultural social psychology is that culture shapes human behavior. Numerous advanced theories of social behavior indicate that cultural factors play significant role in the determination of behavior, shaping values, self, and motivation of individuals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Lehman et al (2004) point out that culture and psychological processes influence one another and a dynamic interplay exists between them.

Culture aims to ensure a harmonious relationship between humans and their environments. Psychological well-being remains the main focus of cultural norms and practices. Myers and Diener (1995) refer to life-satisfaction as one of the three key aspects of psychological well-being, the others being positive and negative affect. Life satisfaction stands together with the affective elements to yield a relatively comprehensive picture of psychological well-being (Diener et al., 1999). Chirkov et al (2005) found ‘culture-fit’ is positively associated with life satisfaction. Adjustment to cultural demands is essential for psychological well-being and life-satisfaction. But cultures are diverse and dynamic social systems and not static monoliths (Bandura, 2002). Cultural changes are inevitable and tend to create new demands which the elderly may find difficult to fulfill. Now the dawning of e-culture emphasizes the acquiring of digital skills and demands shifts in related attitudes, values and norms. Access and usage of electronic technology will be an important determinant of life-satisfaction in this era of e-culture.

Culture also emphasize the importance of group living because from an evolutionary perspective, solitude (loneliness) is dangerous; mutually supportive collective behaviour is beneficial, both for survival and sexual reproduction. Thus, it makes sense to assume that humans have an evolved tendency toward the establishment of shared beliefs, behaviours, and normative structures that help hold social collectives together (Campbell, 1982). Loneliness is popularly viewed as a relative deficit in social relationship with others in the environment. Russell, Peplau, and Cutrona (1980) defined loneliness “as the relational deficit reflecting interpersonal and social relationships that the individual evaluates as quantitatively inadequate or too few in numbers.” It has been conceived as a problem for everyone from children to elderly, however, elderly experience more loneliness because their spouses might be deceased, their friends might have either moved away or died, their children might be in distant places/ cities or on account of physical disabilities (Peplau et al, 1982). Mullins and Mushel (1992) indicated that the elderly people desired to be part of a social network and also prefer the existence of a set of friends but not emotional commitment to a set of friends. They also pointed out that the inability to be part of a social network and lack of friends in old age results in the experience of loneliness. The rapid spread of e-culture enabling easy access to information and facilitating communication with others may help elderly reduce loneliness. Especially, the Internet provides people access to a complete new space and society known as ‘cyber society’. Anybody who enters this virtual world can expect an almost infinite number of possibilities to retrieve information, engage in social interactions and build up lasting relations. There, with the exception of the physical body, the individual can encounter almost everything which can also be found in “real society”: such as membership, role playing, emotions, work, commodities, discussions, etc. Like the conventional reality the cyber experience can also form identity (Jones, 1997). Hence the Internet is considered as an identity-based technology (Langer, 2003).But the onset of electronic culture also poses new demands which the elderly must cope with; failing may result in the experience of loneliness.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Reviews done indicate that studies on e-culture are fragmented and inadequate. Scanty information is available about the influence of e-culture, both at international and national levels. The scientist community has just begun to recognize the importance of e-culture and its influence. At present there are not much substantial empirical evidences available on the impact of e-culture. In India, unfortunately, the research efforts in understanding and investigating the status of e-culture have not yet gained momentum. The research and academic community are dormant regarding the influence of e-culture. Deplorably, many researchers belonging to various disciplines are yet to take up this issue. In particular, from a psychological perspective, e-culture still remains unexplored. India is one of the poorest countries in exposing commercial contents on the global platform using digital media. However, the scope of India’s strength in this direction is immense. The government of India as well as many NGOs stand dedicated and determined to enrich and enhance the e-status of India. Osama Manzar’s (2005) book “The Best E-contents 2005” published by ‘Digital Empowerment Foundation’ (DEF) is an eye-opener regarding the e-contents in India. India is perhaps one of the most uniquely positioned countries in the world.

The present investigation is significant because looking around one finds a number of problems in our society especially related to the elderly. The changing demographic profile of India where there is a rapid increase in the aged population, it is increasingly becoming vulnerable due to the process of urbanization and industrialization (Venkoba Rao, 1992). Chadha and Easwaramoorthy (1993) have critically evaluated the need for a comprehensive study on elderly in India.

Reviews made on psychological well-being indicate that not much is known about age-related changes in life satisfaction, most studies has focused on the role of positive and negative affect. Studies on the impact of cultural changes upon life-satisfaction among the elderly in Indian context appear negligible. Loneliness has become the subject of substantial empirical research only recently. One impetus for the new interest is the realization that loneliness is a serious and widespread problem for millions today (Weiss, 1973). Lakshminarayanan (1993) found that the elderly people feel lonelier than any other population. Research on loneliness among the elderly particularly in Indian context also appears inadequate (Patel, 1998).

Despite, a developing country, its wealth of information, resources, and knowledge capacity puts the country in the list of top 5 countries in the world. India like other nations of the world is no exception to the global process of digitization. India certainly is getting transformed into an e-society, at a faster pace (Osama Manzar, 2005). There are no substantial empirical evidences available regarding the reaction of Indian elderly to the e-cultural phenomenon. Adapting to e-culture demands the acquiring of digital skills (De Haan and Huysmans, 2002). The elderly might find this difficult which may leave them less satisfied with life and also feel lonelier. No studies relating e-culture, loneliness and life-satisfaction among the elderly were also found. Hence this investigation is a pioneering effort made to explore the relationship of e-culture with loneliness and life-satisfaction in Indian context. This investigation will enlighten the academic and research fraternity throwing light on the relationship of e-culture with loneliness and life-satisfaction among the elderly.

METHOD

Sample

The sample for this study comprised of 120 elderly individuals (60 females and 60 males respectively) from Pondicherry (a Union Territory of India). The age range of the samples were between 60 to 73 years (Mean age=64.3 years). Samples were restricted to the educated segment of the elderly population, those with a minimum of a graduate degree and above were only included in this study. Purposive sampling technique was adopted.

Tools used

The research tools used in this study for data collection were the (1) e-culture Inventory, (2) UCLA Loneliness Scale, and (3) Life-Satisfaction Scale, selected after a comprehensive review of related literature.

(1) E-culture inventory

This inventory was developed by Patel and Rajendran (2005) to measure e-culture. It evaluates e-culture based on multiple electronic products people use in different areas such as home, office, public places and those that they carry personally with them. Under each area certain electronic items used by people such as (a) Personal computer, (b) Internet, (c) digital diary, (d) mobile phone, (e) micro-oven, (d) disc-man, (e) Digital cameras, (f) lap-tops, (g) automatic washing machine, (h) DVD players, and frequent visits to (i) computerized shops/ movie halls/ theme parks/ ATMs, etc were stated and verified. The inventory consists of 42 items with 2 responses, i.e., “yes” and “no” respectively for each item. The 42 items are classified into 4 areas, namely, home=16 items, office=11 items, personal=8 items and public=7 items. The score for ‘yes’ in home area is 2, in office is 1, in personal area is 3 and in public area is 1 were as the score for ‘no’ in all the areas is 0. The maximum score possible in this inventory is 74 and the minimum score is 0. High score indicates high e-culture and low score indicates low e-culture. The reliability and validity co-efficient values for this inventory were 0.72 and 0.85 respectively found significant at 0.001 levels.

(2)Revised University of California at Los Angles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale

This scale was developed by Russell et al (1980). It is a 20 item self-report on which respondents express how often their feelings and behaviours reflect perceived isolation and dissatisfaction with social relationships. This scale consists of 10 statements dealing with satisfaction of one’s social relationships and 10 statements dealing with dissatisfaction of one’s social relationships. Respondents indicated how frequently they experience each item on a scale from 1 to 4, corresponding to ‘never,’ ‘rarely,’ ‘sometimes,’ and ‘often’ respectively. Russell et al (1980) determined high internal consistency reliability for the instrument yielding a co-efficient alpha of 0.94. They also found acceptable concurrent validity and discriminant validity. Split-half reliability in Indian context was 0.71 (Jha, 1988).

(3)Life-Satisfaction Scale

This scale was constructed by Campbell et al (1976) to measure life-satisfaction. The scale consists of 7 items based on Likert-type of scaling technique with 5 responses, namely, ‘very happy,’ ‘pretty happy,’ ‘happy,’ ‘not happy,’ and ‘not too happy,’ and the scores range from 1 to 5 respectively. The maximum score possible in this scale is 35 and the minimum score is 7. The test-retest reliability reported for this scale and the validity worked out with Psychological Well-being Scale and with Index of Domain Satisfaction was found to be significant.

Procedure

The samples of this study were personally and individually contacted and data was obtained through face-to face interview. The duration of data collection were spread over a period of two months (60 days). The obtained responses were scored and statistically analyzed.

Table I: Showing the Mean, SD, SEM and t-test for e-culture score of the groups on the basis of gender.

Gender N Mean SD SEM t-value LS

Male 60 34.80 15.46 1.09 1.35 NS

Female 60 32.37 15.96 1.44

Table II: Showing the Pearson’s moment correlation co-efficient for e-culture with

loneliness and life-satisfaction.

Variables r

Loneliness -0.171**

Life-satisfaction 0.154**

** significant at 0.001 levels

*significant at 0.005 levels

Discussion

The main aim of this research study was to explore the relationship of e-culture with loneliness and life-satisfaction among the elderly. For this purpose Pearson’s product moment correlation were calculated, since no significant gender differences were found as indicated in Table I the results for both sexes are combined and given in Table II.

It is inferred from the results summarized in Table II that e-culture has a highly significant positive relationship with life-satisfaction but is negatively and significantly related to loneliness.

In this study e-culture has been conceptualized as increased use of electronic products. The outcome of the present research indicates that more use of electronic items by the elderly results in high life-satisfaction. This outcome of the present study can defended by the view that access to electronic technology and use of electronic products by elderly has multiple implications, it connotes that the elderly posses the required digital skills, is active and productive, is mentally and physically healthy, has adequate economic support and is progressive minded. Van Dijk (2001) has already identified four different types of access to information and communication technology (ICT) as conditions for the emergence of e-culture, namely, motivation, possession, use and skills. Hence, the elderly individuals who are high in e-culture may find easy to adjust to the demands of e-environment and thereby experience more life-satisfaction.

The finding of this research that e-culture is inversely related to loneliness among elderly indicates that increased use of electronic products by elderly individuals results in low level of loneliness and vice versa. The rationale for this finding might be that the preoccupation with electronic products especially multi-media technologies by the elderly may make them feel part of a social network or be a replacement for the lack of friends. The information and communication technology (ICT) championed by Internet and mobile technology ensuing in e-culture has made access to information and communication between people simple, effortless and undemanding. Loneliness which is popularly viewed as relative deficit in adequate social relations may be compromised by increased indulgence in electronic technology making contacts and communication easy for the elderly. Further the elderly individuals possessing the motivation and skills to use electronic products may have more perceived control over their environments. Patel (1998) has empirically proved that increased perceived control results in decreased loneliness among the elderly.

CONCLUSION

The present study reveals that e-culture is positively and significantly related to life-satisfaction and loneliness is negatively and significantly related to e-culture among the elderly.

REFERENCE

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Psychology: An International Review. 51. pp. 269-290.

Brislin, R. (2000). Understanding culture’s influence on behavior (2nd Ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers.

Campbell, A., Converse, P.E and Rodgers, W.L (1976). The Quality of American Life: Perceptions, Evaluations and Satisfactions. New York: Russell Sage Publications.

Campbell, D. T. (1982). Legal and primary-group social controls. Journal of Social and Biological Structure. 5. pp. 431-438.

Chadha, N.K and Easwaramoorthy, M (1993). Aging Issues and Rehabilitation Strategies. In N.K. Chadha and S.Nath (Eds). Issues and Trends in Rehabilitation Research. Delhi: Friends Publications.

Chirkov, V.I., Ryan, R.M. and Willness, C. (2005).Cultural context and psychological needs in Canada and Brazil: Testing a Self-Determination Approach to the Internalization of Cultural Practices, Identity, and Well-Being. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 36, pp. 423-443.

De Haan, J and Huysmans, F. (2002). E-culture: An Empirical Exploration. The Hague: Social and Cultural Plan Bureau. pp. 145-155.

Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276-302.

Dona Kolar-Panov (2003). Cautious Optimism for eCulture in Europe. In S. Dragojevic., D. Dodd., B. Cvjeticanin and C. Smithuijsen (Ed) (2005): E-Culture: The European Perspective- Cultural Policy, Creative Industries, Information Lag (From the proceeding of the round table meeting, Zagreb, 24-27 April 2003). Zagreb: Institute of International Relations. pp. 99-106.

Jha, S.S (1988). Loneliness and dependence proneness as related to social deprivation. Personality study and Group behaviour, 8, pp. 7-11.

Jones, S. G. (1997). Virtual Culture. London: Sage.

Lakshminarayanan, T.R. (1993). A Comparison of Male and Female Rural Aged in Adjustment. Aging and Society. Vol. 3(3). Pp. 5-12.

Langer, J. (2003). About the Cultural Texture of the Digital Divide. In S. Dragojevic., D. Dodd., B. Cvjeticanin and C. Smithuijsen (Ed)(2005): E-Culture: The European Perspective- Cultural Policy, Creative Industries, Information Lag (From the proceeding of the round table meeting, Zagreb, 24-27 April 2003). Zagreb: Institute of International Relations. pp. 65-72.

Lehman, D. R., Chiu, C and Schaller, M. (2004). Psychology and Culture. Annual Review of Psychology. 55. pp. 689-714.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognitions, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.

Mercer, C. (2003). Knowing Ourselves: e-culture in the value production chain. In S. Dragojevic., D. Dodd., B. Cvjeticanin and C. Smithuijsen (Ed)(2005): E-Culture: The European Perspective- Cultural Policy, Creative Industries, Information Lag (From the proceeding of the round table meeting, Zagreb, 24-27 April 2003). Zagreb: Institute of International Relations. pp. 81-88.

Mitchell, R. (2003). Information Society and E-culture: On the Rise and Popularity of the Concepts. In S. Dragojevic., D. Dodd., B. Cvjeticanin and C. Smithuijsen (Ed)(2005): E-Culture: The European Perspective- Cultural Policy, Creative Industries, Information Lag (From the proceeding of the round table meeting, Zagreb, 24-27 April 2003). Zagreb: Institute of International Relations. pp. 9-18.

Mullins, L.C and Mushel, M. (1992). “The Existence and Emotional Closeness of Relationships with Children, Friends and Spouses: The Effects of Loneliness among Older Persons.” Research on Aging, Vol 14(4), pp. 448-470.

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Osama Manzar (2005). “The Best of E-contents 2005.” Delhi: Digital Empowerment Foundation (DEF).

Patel, J.M.A. (1988). Loneliness among the elderly- The role of perceived responsibility and control. Recent researches in Education and Psychology, Vol (3) Nos I-II, pp.21-25.

Patel, J. M. A and Rajendran, K. (2005) E-culture Inventory. SCOPE- Annamalai Psychology Journal, Vol. I, pp. 1-11.

Peplau, L.A., Bikson, T.K., Rook, K.S and Goodchilds, J.D (1982). Being old and living alone. In L.A.Peplau & L.D.Perlman (Eds). Loneliness of source book of current theory, research and therapy. New York: John Wiley.

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Van Dijk, J. (2001). The accessibility of ICTs and the quality of infrastructure and services. In: Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management of the Netherlands (Ed.), People in networks: A contribution to the discussion of the Ministry of Transport to the debate about the Digital Divide. The Hague: Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management.

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asgaralipatel
http://www.articlesbase.com/psychology-articles/loneliness-and-lifesatisfaction-among-the-elderly-140418.html

Quite a few corporate and retail employers enjoy looking for fun ways to bring employees together. One of those ways is to plan team building activities.Sometimes team building activities are held on the premises of an employer. However, quite often employers will provide unconventional team building opportunities off site. The following is a list of some of the most commonly planned types of team building activities:

1.Problem Solving Games

One of the most popular team building activities that involves problem solving is “murder mysteries”. This particular game involves the solving of a mystery with given clues.

Solving a murder mystery is an activity that requires players to use all of his or her finest problem-solving skills. While playing this type of game, some players may be able to exercise their management skills of delegation and organization. Likewise, other players will learn more about how to work well with a close-knit employee group. Treasure Hunts are also another type of problem solving game that calls for group activity. This usually involves finding some type of valuable gift or object with just the use of location or object description hints that are given. This particular type of activity is perfect for helping a group of people learn how to follow directions and to use time wisely.

2.Driving Sport Events

Driving events are sometimes planned for employee groups. Quite often these are planned for pure enjoyment. However, one of the benefits of planning a driving sport event day is that employees learn how to get along even if they are competing against one another. Examples of driving sport events include quad racing (four wheeler racing), off road racing, buggy racing, and remote control car racing. For a very crazy (in a good way) adventure some corporate or employee teams may enjoy reverse steer car races.

The reverse steer car race may deserve a little more explanation than the other types of car racing. The cars used in this type of race involve the use of a backwards type of steering wheel.

3.Communication Exercises

Another type of activity involves playing games that require people that do not know each other well to talk to each other. These are typically called communication exercises, and are planned to help people improve interpersonal activities within the office. Sometimes employee groups who are involved in communication games will play “Twenty Questions” or “Get to Know You” games. For instance, one of the questions for the “Twenty Questions” game could be as follows:

“If you could have one new type of food in the office cafeteria what would it be?”

The type of direction involved in “Get to Know You” games could include something along the lines of the following:

“Find someone in the room who has the same hobby as you.”

Usually communication games not only require quite a bit of verbal communication, but they may also require non-verbal communication as well. For instance, most people know what “Charades” is, or “Pictionary”. Charades is a silent acting game and Pictionary is a drawing/word guessing game. Communication exercises are usually meant for resolving issues that are directly work-related. However, they may also be designed to help teach employees how to resolve personal issues between one another.

4.Social Events

Sometimes entertainment such as music, dancing, or theatre productions may be planned for a corporate event. Moreover, employee events that are organized by employers and/or third party activity coordinators may involve themed parties. Two of the most popular themed parties include the Wild West theme or the Hawaiian themed party.

John Tarr
http://www.articlesbase.com/business-articles/four-main-types-of-team-building-activities-127662.html

I’m a mass comm. student. I’m supposed to write a paper making a comparison between interpersonal comm. and mass media.., so just give me and over view and tell me the points I’m supposed to illustrate.

Without doing your homework for you, Mass media is obviously communication on a large-scale basis and interpersonal communications on a one-on-one or small groups such as small businesses or even larger corporations. Mass media could be viewed as a firehose spraying a large area as opposed to a squirt-gun in spraying interpersonal communication. :>)

Lateral Structural Arrangements in Organizations
In order that the organisation can achieve its goals and objectives the work of individual members must be linked into coherent patterns of activities and relationships. This is achieved through the structure of the organization and the nature of relations. Decision about the future strategy of the organization are made by people and strategies are implemented by people. The success or failure of a current strategy will depend not only on decisions made in the past but also on how those decisions are being implemented now by people employed by the organization.
Lateral organizational arrangements include individuals of different departments and groups. These relations exist on the same organizational level and involve coordination and consultation. This type of arrangements depends upon the co-operation activities and of informal relations. It is therefore important to questions about who, how and why people are doing what they are doing and what they should do in strategic implementation. In short effective lateral organizational arrangements add value, manage the business and can contribute to strategic success but, conversely, they can make spectacular errors that can be very costly to the organization (Galbraith, 1995).
Lateral organizational arrangements depend upon the roles of each individual which implies the expected pattern of behaviours associated with members occupying a particular position within the structure of the organisation. It also describes how a person perceives their own situation.
The concept of ‘role’ is important not only to the functioning of groups but for understanding cooperation processes and behaviour. It is through role differenti¬ation that the structure of relationships among the mem¬bers are established. The development of lateral arrangements entails the identification of distinct roles for each of its members. Some form of structure is necessary for team-work and co-operation. The concept of roles helps to clarify the structure and to define the pattern of complex relationships within the group.
Lateral organisational arrangement belong to tThe formal relationships which can be seen as forms of role relation¬ships. These individual authority relationships determine the pattern of inter¬action with other roles. The role, or roles, that the individual plays within the group is influenced by a combination of: situational factors, such as the requirements of the task, the style of leader¬ ship, position in the communication network; and personal factors such as values, attitudes, motivation, ability and personality.
The role that a person plays in one work group may be quite different from the role that person plays in other work groups. However, everyone within a group is expected to behave in a particular manner and to fulfil certain role expectations. Also, the role relationships with members of their own group – peers, superiors, subordinates – the individual will have a number of role-related relationships with outsiders, for example members of other work groups, trade union officials, suppliers, consumers, and this patterns determine the nature of lateral organizational arrangements. This is a person’s ‘role-set’. The role-set comprises the range of associations or contacts with whom the indi¬vidual has meaningful interactions in connection with the performance of their role (Galbraith, 1995).
An important feature of lateral relations is the concept of ‘role incongruence’. This means that a member of staff should not be perceived as having a high and responsible position in one respect but a low standing in another respect. Difficulties with role congruence can arise from the nature of groupings and formal relationships within the structure of the organisation. Lateral organizational arrangements help to overcome problems which cannot be solved with the help of vertical relations only. “However, in many modern organisations where conventional communication structures either do not exist or are less formal, communication tends to be horizontal, between individuals and departments, rather than the upwards or downward flow assumed by so many to be the normal case” (Ball, 2001).
Decentralization principle is important in a large corporation, which became the central tenet of so much business practice. The need to co¬ordinate strategic planning from the centre to ensure longterm growth for the company, while allowing the indi¬vidual units and their managers to get on with day-to-day tactics are also play the crucial role. “The personal relations existing among members of an organisation which are not represented by the “blueprint” constitute informal organisation or informal relationships. Informal organisation plays as important a part in functioning of social organisation as formal organisation” (Formal & Informal relations, n.d.).
lateral organizational arrangements are achieved when the various HR strategies cohere and are mutually supporting. This can be attained by the process of ‘bundling’ or ‘configuration’. If a deliberate attempt to ‘bundle’ is made, this process will be driven by the needs and characteristics of the business. In this very case lateral organizational arrangements could be described the process of ensuring that strategies are integrated with or ‘fit’ business strategies. The concept of coherence could be defined as lateral organizational arrangements – the development of a mutually reinforcing and interrelated set of policies and practices. Lateral organizational arrangements are chiefly about ensuring that the firms has the skilled, committed and well-motivated workforce.
Lateral organizational arrangements are closely connected with functional features of work. The word ‘functional’ is used to indicate major aspects or departments of the organisation such as research, production and marketing. Differentiation describes ‘the difference in cognitive and emotional orien¬tation among managers in different functional departments’ with respect to: the goal orientation of managers, for example the extent to which attention was focused on particular goals of the department; the time orientation of managers and relation to aspects of the environment with which they are concerned, for example longer-term horizons, or short- term horizons and problems requiring immediate solutions; the interpersonal relations of managers to other members, for example a managerial style based on concern for the task, or on concern for people relationships; and the formality of structure.
It is sometimes suggested that in many organisations the responsibility for employee relations still lies with the line managers who are often sceptical or even hostile towards personnel ideas and techniques, and who frequently reject the concept of an employee relations policy because it hampers their work and limits their flexibility. If line managers are left to handle industrial relations issues for themselves, the pres¬sures of production are likely to lead to ad hoc and contradictory decisions. If a per¬sonnel policy is introduced to promote consistent decisions on industrial relations issues, its effectiveness may depend on granting authority to the personnel depart¬ment to override the natural priorities of line managers (Galbraith, 1995). “Rather than increasing hierarchies, they support the minimizing of vertical structures and the flattening of hierarchies, creating lateral roles and relations. The decision making processes become decentralized and there is a decrease in formalization” (Complex Organizations, n.d.).
As with other aspects of the personnel function it is important that line man¬agers are involved, at least to some extent, with employee relations. But there must be good communications and close consultation with the personnel department. There must be teamwork and a concerted organisational approach to the management of employee relations. This is made easier when top management, who retain ultimate responsibility for the personnel func¬tion, take an active part in fostering goodwill and co-operation between departments and with official union representatives.
Top management should agree clear terms of reference for both the personnel manager and line managers within the framework of sound personnel policies. “By creating lateral connections, the information in the organization is allowed to flow more directly. The communication system would be an informal one. This can be achieved through liaison roles and task forces” (Complex Organizations, n.d.).
The purpose of lateral organizational relations is contributed to a nationwide restructuring of corporations, with the multi-divisional form of organization becoming the standard for large industrial firms producing multiple products in multiple markets. He was one of the first management theorists to perceive the importance of creating a strategic plan for a business before framing its organizational structure (Galbraith, 1995).
In general lateral thinking is the generation of new ideas and the escape from old ones. Creativity involves breaking out of established patterns in order to look at things in a different way and creativity comes into every aspect of manag¬ing a business not only innovation but information systems, communications, finance, marketing, advertising and promotion, labour relations, problem solving, planning, design, R&D and public relations.
According to Ball: “Traditionally, the structure and therefore the communication process is based upon a hierarchy of individual departments, although more and more organisations now see the product and the market as more fundamental to structure than individual departments” (Ball, 2001).
The lateral organizational arrangements is a part of the generality of management. The personnel manager, as a separate entity, operates in terms of a ‘functional’ relationship, that is as a specialist adviser on personnel matters and on the implementation of personnel policies through all departments of the organi¬sation. It is the job of the personnel manager to provide specialist knowledge and services for line managers, and to support them in the performance of their jobs.
In all other respects the personnel manager’s relationship with other managers, supervisors and staff is indirect: that is, an advisory relationship. It is the line managers who have authority and control over staff in their departments, and who have the immediate responsibility for personnel manage¬ment, although there will be times when they need the specialist help and advice of the personnel manager. If the personnel function is to be effective there has to be good teamwork, and co-operation and consultation between line managers and the personnel manager. In this case, “High-quality internal training programs not only give people the skills they need, but also send the clear message that you care about people’s career development and are willing to invest in them as individuals” (HRM guide, n.d.)
The lateral organizational arrangements offers the best hope for long-term business pros¬perity, and he concentrates on the principle that the salaried manager’s role is critical. As managers receive power and authority through their offi¬cial roles, so their careers become increasingly technical and professional. One could use lateral thinking for five per cent of the time and vertical thinking for the other 95 per cent, operating the systems alternately.
The significance of the distinction between jobs and roles is that in the new process-based organisation, horizontal processes (which may have been defined in a business process re-engineering exercise) cut across organisational boundaries. Managements are beginning to regard their organisations in some fundamentally different ways. Rather than seeing them as a hierarchy of static jobs, they think of them, as dynamic processes.
Some members may have the opportunity to determine their own role expectations, where, for example, formal expectations are specified loosely or only in very general terms. Opportunities for self-established roles are more likely in senior positions (Galbraith, 1995).
Given the possibility that different demands of the environment are characterized by different levels of uncertainty, then it follows that individual departments may develop different structures. At the organisational level the detailed involvement of the work activities of organizational several departments, available time, and the need for specialisation suggest that the personnel manager has a prominent role to play. The ager is the main executor of personnel policies but acting in consultation with, and taking advice from, line managers.
Lateral organizational arrangements are connected with coordination and consultation. Line managers are on hand to observe directly the performance of their staff. They will actually see, and be directly affected by, for example, lateness of staff, unsatisfactory work, insufficient training, low morale, staff unrest, or poor planning of work duties and responsibilities. As an element function, personnel is an integral part of any managerial activity. The extent to which the personnel function is devolved to line managers is a decision for top management, and is likely to be influenced by the nature and characteristic features of the particular industry or organisation.
Separate units of differ¬ing size, location and mix of skills, means of necessity the personnel function is decentralised and prime responsibility has to be with line management.
An understanding of the capabilities of individuals and groups terms of attitudes, abilities and skills, as well as an understanding how individuals relate one to another, is an important part of the preparation and development of strategy. At the same time there has been a deterioration in lateral relations in many places, and a failure to introduce changes in work methods necessary for effective competition and organisational effectiveness. Personnel departments as such are clearly not to blame for these developments much more guilty are those line managers at the highest level who have opted out of their most important function, that of managing people.
Members may not always be consciously aware of these informal expecta¬tions yet they still serve as important determinants of behaviour. The psychological contract implies a variety of expec¬tations between the individual and the organisation. These expectations cover a range of rights and privileges, duties and obligations which do not form part of a formal agreement but still have an important influence on behaviour.
At the departmental or unit level the individuals might assume a promi¬nent role for day-to-day personnel matters, with the personnel manager as adviser, and if necessary as arbitrator. They would be more con¬cerned, at least in the first instance, with the operational aspects of personnel activities within their own departments. For example: the organisation of work and allocation of duties; minor disciplinary matters; standards of work performance; safety; on-the-job training; communication of information; and grievances from staff . On-line communication process can reduce waste of time for solving these problems (DeSanctis, Monge, 1998).
Within lateral organizational arrangements many role expectations are prescribed formally and indicate what the person is expected to do and their duties and obligations. Formal role prescriptions provide guidelines for expected behaviours and may be more prevalent in a ‘mechanistic’ organisation. Formal role expectations may also be derived clearly from the nature of the task. But not all role expectations are prescribed formally. There will be certain general conduct, mutual support to co-members, attitudes towards superiors, means of communicating, dress and appearance.
According to lateral organizational arrangements it is made easier when top management, who retain ultimate responsi¬bility for the personnel function, take an active part in fostering goodwill and harmonious working relationships among departments. Top management should agree clear terms of reference for individuals within a framework of sound personnel policies. Within this framework the personnel function can be seen as operating at two levels: the organisational level and the departmental level.
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Andrew Sandon
http://www.articlesbase.com/organizational-articles/lateral-structural-arrangements-in-organizations-75489.html

‘Grammar’ is one of the most problematic issues in writing and “Use Punctuation Marks” Checker was developed in order to help us better deal with it. English writing is a powerful tool; if we use it properly it will enable us to achieve many of our goals whether for personal or business purposes. You don’t have to be an expert in order to transform your writing correct and professional – read more in the following article.

Short overview

The following solution is basically an automatic proofreading tool; this advanced “Use Punctuation Marks” Checker enables you to improve your English writing by identifying any grammatical and/or spelling problem as you write. Text analysis as far as it concerns correct grammar and punctuation, is quite challenging. However, in recent years we notice several technological achievements in this field based on massive DB as well as advanced algorithms. In most cases these solutions enables us to do the following: grammar check, misspelling and typos correction, and suggesting proper punctuation.

Quick benefits and advantages

Finally, we need the bottom line, let’s see what benefits we get:

* Assisting ESL learners assimilating English grammar rules.
* Improving our writing style.
* Improving our inter-personal communication skills.
* Saves us time spent on grammar guides.
* Helping people who use writing as their main working tool whether at home or in the office.

There are probably many other benefits that are not covered here, as this powerful tool constantly changes, bringing us new ideas and additional solutions that help us on improving our English writing.

Conclusion

“Use Punctuation Marks” Checker is based on a new technology that can help most average users on improving their English writing skills. Do we really need it? Well, could we imagine using a word processor without a basic spelling checker…? We can only expect this important webmarketing technique to further develop itself, simply because writing is one of the most important tools that help us fulfill our daily assignments.

Gil Lavitov
http://www.articlesbase.com/self-publishing-articles/quotuse-punctuation-marksquot-checker–how-to-write-like-a-pro-670208.html

Express your thoughts clearly:
To be effective in interpersonal communication, organize your thoughts. Think through what you plan to say before you say it. Choose the appropriate words that will best communicate these thoughts, and speak in the language of the listener. Strive for utmost clarity.

Be willing to express your feelings:
Those people who are able to express their feelings are more likely to be effective communicators than those who are not. This does not mean an irresponsible venting of emotions; rather, it means expression of feelings tempered with responsibility. If you are unable or unwilling to express your feelings, others may view you as bland. Your people want to know where you are coming from. Tell them! Move beyond merely exchanging data and information. Enrich your communication with a clear expression of your feelings about the issues at hand.

Put yourself in the place of the other person:
The effective communicator has empathy: the capacity to participate in another’s thoughts or feelings. Empathy is the ability to see the world through the other person’s eyes. It is an attitude, a frame of mind, which has a profound effect on the quality of the communication. Empathy is what helps set up the exchange as a living mutual relation.

Be “truly present” When engaging in interpersonal communication, many managers appear to be preoccupied with other thoughts. Their body language conveys the impression that their thoughts are paying attention on something other than the matter at hand. Don’t be guilty of this type of behavior. Whenever talking with another person, give that person your undivided attention. Even if you have only 10 minutes to give, give the person 10 minutes of your undivided attention.

Be a good listener:
It has been estimated that no more than about 10 percent of the general population might be considered really good listeners. That means that about 90 percent of us have room for improvement. It will be to your credit if you develop a reputation for being a good listener. Be an active listener and listen with understanding. Ask good questions. Paraphrase the key points that the other person has made. Check your perception of the person’s feelings. Link the elements. Achieve unity. These are things that you can learn to do. Great effort is required, but making the effort will surely enhance your effectiveness in interpersonal communication.

Postpone evaluation:
Whenever a new idea is being presented for consideration, many managers are too quick on the draw in evaluating the idea. Before they have really understood the idea, they judge it to be either good or bad. Such behavior tends to inhibit communication and may cause the manager to miss out on some promising ideas. Whenever a new idea is being presented to you, discipline yourself to postpone evaluation until after you have demonstrated that you fully understand the idea.

Avoid becoming hostile when another person’s views differ from your own:
Employees learn a great deal about their manager on the basis of how the manager responds to opposing views. (And body language speaks louder than words.) If the manager appears threatened or distressed whenever an employee offers an opposing view, the employees in all likelihood will be reluctant to challenge the manager in the future. As a consequence, the manager’s ideas may go untested, and some potentially good ideas may never be considered. Avoid becoming hostile to opposing views. Try to understand the other person’s views: what they mean, how they came about, and why the person supports these particular views. Then, when appropriate, try to incorporate these views into your own thinking, while at the same time giving due credit to the person who generated the ideas.

Be willing to change your convictions as new truths are uncovered:
Too many people believe that they have a “lock” on truth. There is only one way to the top of the mountain, and that is their way. Their own views are obviously correct, which means that any opposing views are obviously incorrect. One of the greatest challenges for you as a manager is to keep an open mind. This does not mean a wishy-washy approach in which you agree with every opposing view, but it does mean that you will hear others out and try to understand their views, even when the views are contrary to your own. Perhaps it will turn out to be a significant learning experience; you may glean some insights that will help you strengthen your own views.

Be willing to confront:
Conflict is an integral part of life. If we are encouraging people to be authentic in expressing their thoughts and feelings, conflict is inevitable; if we are calling for people to be creative in expressing their own views, conflict is inevitable; and if we are requiring people to work in complex and ever-changing organizations that have competing demands, conflict is inevitable. Conflict is not something to be avoided; rather, it is something to be guided and channeled for productive ends. Whenever your views differ from those of others, be willing to confront. This is essential for authentic dialogue.

Think win-win:
When confronting others, there are those who think only in terms of win lose. There obviously will be a winner and a loser. This is a basic attitude that has been ingrained over the years. Don’t get trapped in the win-lose mentality. Transcend it! Focus on ends rather than means. Ask yourself: In this particular confrontation, what might be done to assure that both my adversary and I achieve our objectives? How can we both emerge as winners?

Nishanth Reddy
http://www.articlesbase.com/self-help-articles/effective-communication-tips-for-todays-manager-74858.html

Ive this project i have to do..i need to choose a topic related to interpersonal communication and I want to do it about "The Dead Woman of Juarez"..what does it have to do with interpersonal communication??

nothing:

you cannot communicate w/ the Dead

Executives and managers are involved in meetings, presentations, interviews, conferences, telephone conversations, memos or emails, participating in all sorts of communications methods to exchange the necessary information. In fact, when one examines an organization, it can be easily seen that many examples of verbal and nonverbal behavior exist. Some communication specialists believe that these and almost all other forms of behavior are really means of communication and conversely that all forms of communication reflect the behavior of individuals. But, is this the case? Well, if nothing else, the fact remains that in every organization, communication occurs constantly.

People who are concerned with human communication do not focus on precisely what one says or writes, but on how the persons involved perceive and translate the message they send and receive. Experts working in the behavioral sciences and related areas have contributed a great deal in recent years to the field of communication. For example, valuable work on theories of human communication has been done by psychiatrist Jurgen Ruesch. Dr. Ruesch identifies various communication networks as follows: – The intrapersonal network is entirely within the individual and involves thinking and feeling. – The interpersonal communication network links two or more persons. – The group interaction network links groups of people. Because of the number of people involved, it is usually difficult to achieve effective communication with everybody. – The final network is cultural. Here there is no specific originator or receiver of the message. Certain symbols in our society-cars, clothing, homes, morals, and the like-are part of out cultural network. It is almost impossible to correct or change the system because of its powerful and pervasive nature.

Thus, it is easy to estimate the importance of communication to managers. In an effort to attain organizational goals, they use communication to persuade, inform, and motivate people who play key roles in getting things done. Managers almost always get their jobs done through other people. They may be skilled controllers, production supervisors, or directors of engineering, but they need people to help them achieve their objectives. But the only way to get other people to do what a manager thinks should be done is through communication.

Research indicates that although monetary awards and fear of punishment might be effective motivators, these rarely work on a long-term basis. Communication, which often fulfills basic social and egoistic needs, can and does work as a positive motivator. In fact, some spoken words of praise and recognition or a look that reflects encouragement or approval may prove to be just as effective a means of communication as any written memorandum.

Jonathon Hardcastle
http://www.articlesbase.com/communication-articles/getting-things-done-through-effective-communication-66807.html

Communication is a basic tool of success in modern days. Communication means interaction between persons, or to a crowd. Interpersonal communication efficacy is considered as a skill since the bond of relationships relies on the power of it. The focus of the communication is to makes others understand about what you want to make them know. The primary need of the communication is that it must be clear and evident. The modern days are mentioned as the communication age since an evolution in the communication modes has been taking place. The developments in the communication have helped to shrink the world indeed into a global village. However, as the communication modes evolves, the necessity to streamline the communication also increases.

While streamline your communication, you must be conscious to use words, which are sufficient to convey your idea. The communication has to be molded considering various factors such as the occasion, mode of communication, and the person to whom you are communicating. Communication includes all the means of interaction such as speaking, writing, gestures, and expression. The basic protocol, which the person has to maintain in the communication, is considered as the etiquette of communication.

Streamlining of the communication has to be done according to the context of interaction. In case of business relationships, communication is extremely important. The special feature of business communication is that it must be short, and precise to the matter. In public speaking, communication has to be interesting. You have to adopt a sort of demonstration in public speaking, to make it appreciable for the whole crowd. Context relevant examples and jokes will make it really attractive. The preference in the personal communication has to fix in accordance with the other person. However, prior preparation for communication is advisable, in common to all types of communication.

The advent to new technologies has raised the necessity of streamlining the communication. From face to face interactions and mails, now, the horizon of communication has extended to telephone, fax, mobile phone and internet. The etiquette of communication has to be readjusted, with accordance with the peculiarities of the mode of communication such as for telephone speaking manners is important and for internet quick reply is the requirement. However, in streamlining, the general requirements for communication must be retained, such as it has to be interesting and pleasing. Any how, if you want the expected response, you definitely have to be an active listener too.

To add on, remember the saying, first impression is the best impression. An impressive start and interactive gestures will certainly make your attempt remarkable, in direct communications.

John Khu
http://www.articlesbase.com/communication-articles/streamline-your-communication-in-the-modern-day-81453.html